One tonne of CO2 emitted in 1990 caused US$180 in discounted global damages by 2020 ($40–530) and will cause an additional $1,840 through 2100 ($500–5,700). Settling debts for past damages will not settle debts for past emissions. The research, Quantifying climate loss and damage consistent with a social cost of carbon, was published in Nature and was carried out by Burke, M., Zahid, M., Diffenbaugh, N.S. et al. 

In other illustrative estimates, a single long-haul flight per year over the past decade leads to about $25k ($6,000–77,000) in future damages by 2100, and US emissions since 1990 caused $500 billion ($180–1,300 billion) of damage in India and $330 billion ($110–820 billion) in Brazil.

Carbon removal offers an alternative to transfer payments for settling loss and damage, but is increasingly ineffective in limiting damages as the delay between emission and recapture increases.